he French Wars of Religion (1562–98) is the name of a period of civil infighting and military operations, primarily fought between French Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The conflict involved the factional disputes between the aristocratic houses of France, such as the House of Bourbon and House of Guise(Lorraine), and both sides received assistance from foreign sources.
The exact number of wars and their respective dates are the subject of continued debate by historians; some assert that the Edict of Nantes in 1598 concluded the wars, although a resurgence of rebellious activity following this leads some to believe the Peace of Alais in 1629 is the actual conclusion. However, the Massacre of Vassyin 1562 is agreed to begin the Wars of Religion and the Edict of Nantes at least ended this series of conflicts. During this time, complex diplomatic negotiations and agreements of peace were followed by renewed conflict and power struggles.
Between 2,000,000 and 4,000,000 people were killed as a result of war, famine and disease,[1] and at the conclusion of the conflict in 1598, Huguenots were granted substantial rights and freedoms by the Edict of Nantes, though it did not end hostility towards them. The wars weakened the authority of the monarchy, already fragile under the rule of Francis II and then Charles IX, though it later reaffirmed its role under Henry IV.
Background[edit]
Introduction of Reform Ideas[edit]
The Renaissance in France[edit]
Humanism, until the late 1520s, served as a breeding ground for the French Protestant Reformation. The spirit of the Renaissance interested Francis I. He encouraged the study of the classics by establishing royal professorships in Paris, equipping more people with the knowledge necessary to understand the classics. Francis I had no qualms with the established religious order, and did not support reformation. Through the Concordat of Bologna, Pope Leo X increased the power of the king over the church; nomination of clergy depended upon the king's choice and taxes were levied upon the church. In France, unlike in Germany, the nobles supported the policies and the status quo of their time.[2]
The establishment of the royal college and the spread of the printing press served the purposes of the Reformation. The printing press made mass production of books inexpensive and fueled the spread of knowledge in all disciplines.[3] Interest in the classics soared and literature was made available to a wider audience. The accessibility coupled with romanticism for the "knowledge from the past" that built empires and civilizations brought about the value for understanding literary works from the original. Precise language and eloquence were valued among scholars and true understanding of the classics meant studying them from the originals. This inevitably led to the reading, study and translation of the early church fathers and the New Testament from their original without relying on commentaries from the medieval period [4]
The printing press also facilitated the spread of information across borders. Theological and religious thoughts were disseminated at an unprecedented pace. Ideas about the Reformation were widespread in France by 1519. John Froben, a humanist printer, published a collection of Luther’s works. In one correspondence, he reported that 600 copies of such works were being shipped to France and Spain and were sold in Paris.[5]
The humanist perspective on understanding Scriptures had theological and ecclesiastical implications. Studying Scriptures in the original flourished in the Renaissance period. Scholars, who approached theology from this humanist perspective, argued that exegesis of Scripture must be coupled with understanding the Greek language used in writing the New Testament and later the Hebrew language for the Old Testament. This contrasted the heavy reliance of the medieval church on the Vulgate - the Latin translation of the Bible.[6]
The Meaux Circle was formed by a group of humanists including Jacques Lefèvre d’Étaples and Guillaume Briçonnet, bishop of Meaux, in the effort to reform preaching and religious life. The Meaux circle was joined by Vatable, a Hebraist[7] and Guillaume Budé the classicist and librarian to the king.[8] Lefèvre’s works such as the Fivefold Psalter and his commentary on the Epistle to the Romans were humanist in its approach. They put emphasis on the literal interpretation of Scripture and highlighted Christ. Lefèvre’s approach to the Scriptures influenced Luther’s methodology on biblical interpretation.[5] Luther would later use his works in developing his lectures[9] that contained ideas that would spark the greater part of the Reformation known as Lutheranism. William Farel also became part of the Meaux circle. He was the leading minister of Geneva who invited Calvin to serve there.[10] They were later exiled out of Geneva because they opposed governmental intrusion upon church administration. But their eventual return to Switzerland was followed by major developments in the Reformation that would later grow intoCalvinism. Marguerite of Navarre, the sister of King Francis I, also became part of the circle.
Corruption of the Established Religious System[edit]
Corruption among the clergy showed the need for reform and Lutheran ideas made impressions of such hope.[11] Criticisms from the population played a part in spreading anticlerical sentiments, such as the publication Heptameron by Marguerite, a collection of stories that depicted immorality among the clergy.[12]Furthermore, the reduction of salvation to a business scheme based on good- works- for- sale system added to the injury. Under these circumstances salvation by grace through faith in Jesus was a pleasant alternative. Works such as Farel’s translation of the Lord’s Prayer, The True and Perfect Prayer with Lutheran ideas became popular among the masses. It focused on the biblical basis of faith as a free gift of God, salvation by faith alone and importance of understanding in prayer. It also contained criticisms against the clergy of their neglect that hampered growth of true faith
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